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# Research Synthesis: Intermittent Fasting (IF) effects — full paper ## Abstract This synthesis tests the thesis that evidence for Intermittent Fasting If Effects is context-dependent, separating outcome-specific signals from broader claims and identifying the evidence gaps that should bound interpretation. Evidence-honesty note: 47/60 retained sources are indirect, review-level, adjacent, or mechanistic and are used only to bound interpretation. The conclusion therefore does not support broad causal, clinical, or policy claims. This paper synthesizes evidence on intermittent fasting if effects across 60 included source papers and 4200 high-confidence extracted claims. The evidence profile contains 13 direct clinical sources, 44 adjacent, review, or context sources, and 3 mechanistic or model-system sources, with a high-density pairwise disagreement map across the evidence base. Positive study-level signals are not the dominant direction in any outcome class; null signals are not the dominant direction in any outcome class; negative signals are not the dominant direction in any outcome class; mixed or heterogeneous signals are summarized in the cardiometabolic, contextual adjacent evidence, immune and inflammation, muscle function, mechanism, and safety and comorbidity outcome classes. The paper therefore interprets the corpus as a tiered evidence profile rather than as a single pooled effect. The conclusion is that intermittent fasting if effects remains a bounded evidence case: the retained clinical and mechanistic evidence profile defines the scope for targeted testing, while mixed and null findings limit any unqualified broad clinical claim. ## Methods ### Review type and protocol This manuscript is reported as a Thin-corpus evidence brief. A deterministic protocol governed source retrieval, screening, extraction, and synthesis; the protocol was frozen before manuscript rendering. The full audit trail is in the supplementary `methods_pack.json` and the timestamped submission directory `synthesis-intermittent_fasting_if_effects-v06-DAILY-2026-07-03T04-01-04Z`. ### Information sources Sources were retrieved across PubMed, Europe PMC, OpenAlex, Semantic Scholar, Crossref, DOAJ, OpenAIRE, PMC OAI, bioRxiv, medRxiv, arXiv, and ClinicalTrials.gov. Retrieval window: 2026-07-03. ### Search strategy The following topic-anchored queries were executed against the information sources listed above: - `intermittent fasting (IF) effects aging` - `intermittent fasting (IF) effects older adults` - `intermittent fasting (IF) effects randomized controlled trial` - `intermittent fasting (IF) aging` - `intermittent fasting (IF) older adults` - `intermittent fasting (IF) randomized controlled trial` - `fasting aging` - `fasting older adults` - `fasting randomized controlled trial` ### Eligibility criteria - Sources whose primary content addresses intermittent fasting if effects. - Sources with extractable quantitative or qualitative findings. - Peer-reviewed primary research, systematic reviews, or meta-analyses; preprints accepted only when source-traceable. - Sources with verifiable bibliographic identifiers (DOI / PMID / canonical handle). ### Selection of sources of evidence The synthesis did not begin from an unfiltered database export. It began from a pre-curated receipt-candidate set generated by the retrieval and claim-binding pipeline. Of 190 records in the receipt-candidate union, 70 were classified as source candidates and 60 were admitted as traceable synthesis sources. Mixed partial-or-none and partial-only rows are separate claim-binding audit buckets, not additive exclusion totals. No additional records were excluded after final source admission. ### source admission funnel | Admission bucket | n | |---|---:| | source candidate union | 190 | | Classified source candidates | 70 | | No extractable claims | 19 | | None-only claim binding | 2 | | Mixed partial-or-none claim-binding candidates | 54 | | Partial-only claim-binding candidates | 14 | | Strict high-confidence sources | 31 | | Admitted final sources | 60 | ### Exclusion reasons - No records were excluded at the gates instrumented for this run: the eligibility criteria above were applied during retrieval and claim-binding but produced no post-screening exclusions with recorded counts for this corpus. ### Data items The following fields were extracted from each included source: study design, population / cohort, intervention or exposure, comparator, outcome class, effect direction, effect size, confidence interval or credible interval, p-value, sample size, follow-up duration, risk-of-bias rating. Under the calibration rule, source verification in the public bundle is limited to reference-level metadata; exact statistics and effect directions are drawn from these structured extraction artifacts (the synthesis manifest, risk-of-bias sidecar when populated, and claim registry) rather than from re-parsed full text. ### Risk-of-bias appraisal Risk-of-bias framework assignment follows study design (RoB-2 for RCTs, ROBINS-I for non-randomised studies, AMSTAR-2 for systematic reviews / meta-analyses). Public appraisal claims are limited to populated `risk_of_bias.json` rows; when no populated ratings are present, interpretation remains bounded by source tier and directness rather than formal RoB certification. ### Synthesis approach Evidence-tension synthesis: claims grouped by outcome class (cardiometabolic, contextual adjacent evidence, immune and inflammation, mechanism, muscle function, safety and comorbidity); within-class agreement, disagreement, and directness gaps surfaced explicitly. Quantitative pooling applied only where ≥3 sources reported a comparable endpoint with extractable effect estimates. ### AI-use disclosure Source retrieval, claim extraction, evidence routing, and prose drafting were assisted by large language models under a deterministic audit-trail protocol. Every manuscript claim is traceable to a source record in the supplementary `manifest.json`. Final eligibility and interpretation decisions are author-verified. ### Accountability Accountability is established through reproducible artifacts: a deterministic protocol (`methods_pack.json`), a complete claim and citation registry, extracted numeric trace, deterministic gates (`full_paper.journal_surface.json`, `pre_submit_gate.json`, `artifact_consistency.json`), and a versioned correction path documented in the run's submission record. Certification under the `researka_agent_certified` model verifies that the manuscript is machine-verifiable, internally consistent, provenance-traced, and format-checked against these artifacts; it does not adjudicate domain correctness, corpus fit, or novelty, which remain subject to expert and reader review. ## Evidence Landscape ### Findings Map Findings Map completeness note: all 60 admitted manifest rows are surfaced below; outcome class follows endpoint/source context before topic keywords. | Evidence domain | Source | Direction | Directness | Tier | Evidence role | Finding | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Cardiometabolic | Abdollahpour 2025: Comparative effects of intermittent fasting and calorie restriction on cardiovascular health in adults with overweight or obesity | direction=unclear | directness=indirect | B2 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=unclear | finding=representative statistic P < 0.05; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Barve 2025: Cardiometabolic and molecular adaptations to 6-month intermittent fasting in middle-aged men and women with overweight: secondary outcomes of a randomized controlled trial | direction=unclear | directness=direct | A1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=unclear | finding=representative statistic P = 0.001; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Breit 2025: Effects of 4:3 Intermittent Fasting on Eating Behaviors and Appetite Hormones: A Secondary Analysis of a 12-Month Behavioral Weight Loss Intervention | direction=unclear | directness=indirect | B2 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=unclear | finding=representative statistic P < 0.01; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Choi 2022: Effect of Carbohydrate-Restricted Diets and Intermittent Fasting on Obesity, Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, and Hypertension Management: Consensus Statement of the Korean Society for the Study of Obesity, Korean Diabetes Association, and Korean Society of Hypertension | direction=null | directness=indirect | B2 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=null | finding=16 extracted claim(s); source-level direction is the coded finding | | Cardiometabolic | Couto-Alfonso 2026: Intermittent Fasting and Healthy Aging in Older Adults: A Systematic Review of Cardiometabolic, Mental Health and Cognitive Outcomes with a Network Meta-Analysis of Anthropometric Measures | direction=mixed | directness=review | B1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=mixed | finding=representative statistic P = 0.001; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Dai 2025: Additional Effect of Exercise to Intermittent Fasting on Body Composition and Cardiometabolic Health in Adults With Overweight/obesity: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis | direction=unclear | directness=review | B2 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=unclear | finding=representative non-significant statistic P = 0.67; not treated as positive or negative directional support unless source direction is coded | | Cardiometabolic | Fattah 2026: The impact of intermittent fasting during weight reduction in people living with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized clinical trial | direction=unclear | directness=direct | A1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=unclear | finding=representative statistic P < 0.001; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Giorno 2025: Intermittent Fasting During Pregnancy and Neonatal Birth Weight: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | direction=unclear | directness=review | B2 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=unclear | finding=representative statistic P = 0.03; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Guo 2025: Comprehensive impact of Intermittent Hypoxia Training and Intermittent Fasting on metabolic and cognitive health in adults with obesity: an umbrella systematic review and meta-analysis | direction=unclear | directness=review | B2 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=unclear | finding=58 extracted claim(s); source-level direction is the coded finding | | Cardiometabolic | He 2026: The effects of intermittent fasting on BMI, fasting blood glucose, and blood pressure in women with overweight or obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis with dose–response relationships | direction=negative | directness=review | B1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=negative | finding=representative statistic P = 0.0396; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Jiao 2026: Optimal dosage of exercise combined with intermittent fasting for body composition and cardiometabolic health in adults: a systematic review and multilevel meta-analysis | direction=unclear | directness=review | B2 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=unclear | finding=representative statistic P < 0.01; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Kazeminasab 2024: Effects of intermittent fasting combined with physical exercise on cardiometabolic outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical studies. | direction=unclear | directness=review | B1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=unclear | finding=representative statistic P = 0.001; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Khalafi 2024a: Combined versus independent effects of exercise training and intermittent fasting on body composition and cardiometabolic health in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis | direction=mixed | directness=review | B1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=mixed | finding=representative statistic P = 0.001; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Khalafi 2024b: The effects of intermittent fasting on body composition and cardiometabolic health in adults with prediabetes or type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. | direction=unclear | directness=review | B1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=unclear | finding=16 extracted claim(s); source-level direction is the coded finding | | Cardiometabolic | Khalafi 2025b: Longer-term effects of intermittent fasting on body composition and cardiometabolic health in adults with overweight and obesity: A systematic review and meta-analysis. | direction=unclear | directness=review | B1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=unclear | finding=8 extracted claim(s); source-level direction is the coded finding | | Cardiometabolic | Kibret 2025: Intermittent Fasting for the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease Risks: Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis | direction=negative | directness=review | B1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=negative | finding=202 extracted claim(s); source-level direction is the coded finding | | Cardiometabolic | Koh 2025: The Effectiveness of Time-Restricted Eating as an Intermittent Fasting Approach on Shift Workers’ Glucose Metabolism: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | direction=mixed | directness=review | B1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=mixed | finding=representative non-significant statistic P = 0.83; not treated as positive or negative directional support unless source direction is coded | | Cardiometabolic | Li 2026: Intermittent fasting versus continuous energy restriction in MASLD: a systematic review and meta-analysis | direction=mixed | directness=review | B1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=mixed | finding=representative statistic P = 0.031; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Liu 2025: The effects of intermittent fasting on anthropometric indices, glycemic profile, chemotherapy-related toxicity, and subjective perception in gynecological and breast cancer patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis | direction=negative | directness=review | B2 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=negative | finding=representative statistic P < 0.001; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Lu 2025: The effect of intermittent fasting on insulin resistance, lipid profile, and inflammation on metabolic syndrome: a GRADE assessed systematic review and meta-analysis | direction=mixed | directness=review | B1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=mixed | finding=representative statistic P = 0.024; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Monda 2026: Metabolic and Orexin-A Responses to Ketogenic Diet and Intermittent Fasting: A 12-Month Randomized Trial in Adults with Obesity | direction=negative | directness=direct | A1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=negative | finding=representative statistic P = 0.004; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Noda 2026: A Brief Web-Based and Mobile Intervention of Intermittent Fasting With Meal Support for Weight Loss Among Adults With Overweight and Obesity in Japan: Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial | direction=unclear | directness=direct | A1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=unclear | finding=representative non-significant statistic P = 0.10; not treated as positive or negative directional support unless source direction is coded | | Cardiometabolic | Nofal 2025: Effect of intermittent Islamic fasting in management of metabolic syndrome: a randomized control trial | direction=negative | directness=direct | A1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=negative | finding=representative statistic P < 0.001; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Qudah 2026: Effects of intermittent fasting on HbA1c and weight in insulin versus oral hypoglycemic therapy-treated patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis | direction=positive | directness=review | B1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=positive | finding=representative statistic P < 0.001; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Ranneh 2025: Effect of Intermittent Fasting on Anthropometric Measurements, Metabolic Profile, and Hormones in Women with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | direction=mixed | directness=review | B1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=mixed | finding=representative statistic P = 0.02; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Semnani-Azad 2025: Intermittent fasting strategies and their effects on body weight and other cardiometabolic risk factors: systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomised clinical trials | direction=unclear | directness=review | B2 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=unclear | finding=82 extracted claim(s); source-level direction is the coded finding | | Cardiometabolic | Sen 2026: Conversion Bariatric Surgery, Ketogenic Diet, and Intermittent Fasting in Bariatric Surgery Patients with Recurrent Weight Gain: a Prospective Randomized Controlled Trial | direction=unclear | directness=direct | A1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=unclear | finding=representative statistic P < 0.001; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Song 2025: Intermittent fasting improves metabolic outcomes in metabolic syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis with GRADE evaluation | direction=mixed | directness=review | B1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=mixed | finding=representative statistic P = 0.001; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Sourij 2026: Safety and efficacy of intermittent fasting with or without exercise in people living with overweight or obesity and type 2 diabetes—The INTERFAST ‐3 study design | direction=unclear | directness=indirect | B2 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=unclear | finding=representative statistic P < 0.05; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Steger 2025: Rationale and protocol for a randomized parallel intervention trial of two intermittent fasting approaches in patients with type 2 diabetes | direction=null | directness=direct | A1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=null | finding=8 extracted claim(s); source-level direction is the coded finding | | Cardiometabolic | Sudasinghe 2026: Intermittent fasting and neuroprotection in Alzheimer’s disease: metabolic mechanisms, cellular signaling, and brain-peripheral crosstalk | direction=null | directness=indirect | B2 | outcome=Mechanism/Cardiometabolic (cell/in vitro); direction=null | finding=2 extracted claim(s); source-level direction is the coded finding | | Cardiometabolic | Tavakoli 2025: The effects of intermittent fasting on antioxidant and inflammatory markers and liver enzymes in postmenopausal, overweight and obese women with rheumatoid arthritis: a randomized controlled trial | direction=unclear | directness=direct | A1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=unclear | finding=representative statistic P = 0.02; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Wang 2025: The impact of intermittent fasting on body composition and cardiometabolic outcomes in overweight and obese adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials | direction=null | directness=review | B2 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=null | finding=24 extracted claim(s); source-level direction is the coded finding | | Cardiometabolic | Xing 2026: Age-Specific Analysis of the Effects of Intermittent Fasting on Body Composition and Cardiometabolic Markers in Healthy Adults and Individuals with Overweight or Obesity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials | direction=unclear | directness=review | B2 | outcome=Biomarker/Adjacent Cardiometabolic; direction=unclear | finding=representative statistic P < 0.001; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Yang 2021: Effect of Epidemic Intermittent Fasting on Cardiometabolic Risk Factors: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials | direction=null | directness=review | B1 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=null | finding=representative statistic P < 0.05; source-level statistic reported | | Cardiometabolic | Zhang 2025: Effect of intermittent fasting on obesity and metabolic indices in patients with metabolic syndrome: a systematic review and meta analysis | direction=null | directness=review | B2 | outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=null | finding=13 extracted claim(s); source-level direction is the coded finding | | Contextual Adjacent Evidence | Bamberg 2025: Stable cognitive performance while adapting to intermittent fasting: A randomised controlled trial | direction=null | directness=direct | A1 | outcome=Contextual Adjacent Evidence; direction=null | finding=28 extracted claim(s); source-level direction is the coded finding | | Contextual Adjacent Evidence | Beveridge 2025: Intermittent fasting and neurocognitive disorders: What the evidence shows | direction=null | directness=indirect | B2 | outcome=Contextual Adjacent Evidence; direction=null | finding=8 extracted claim(s); source-level direction is the coded finding | | Contextual Adjacent Evidence | Bunker 2025: Intermittent fasting and a no-sugar diet for Long COVID symptoms: a randomized crossover trial | direction=unclear | directness=direct | A1 | outcome=Contextual Adjacent Evidence; direction=unclear | finding=representative statistic P = 0.008; source-level statistic reported | | Contextual Adjacent Evidence | Couto 2025: The impact of intermittent fasting and Mediterranean diet on older adults' physical health and quality of life: A randomized clinical trial. | direction=unclear | directness=direct | A1 | outcome=Contextual Adjacent Evidence; direction=unclear | finding=2 extracted claim(s); source-level direction is the coded finding | | Contextual Adjacent Evidence | Fang 2025: Evaluation of Mobile Intermittent Fasting Applications in Chinese App Stores: Quality Evaluations and Content Analysis | direction=unclear | directness=indirect | B2 | outcome=Contextual Adjacent Evidence; direction=unclear | finding=35 extracted claim(s); source-level direction is the coded finding | | Contextual Adjacent Evidence | Karras 2025: Vitamin D supplementation and its impact on leptin and interleukin-6 in women following religious intermittent fasting: a controlled study | direction=unclear | directness=indirect | B2 | outcome=Contextual Adjacent Evidence; direction=unclear | finding=representative statistic P < 0.001; source-level statistic reported | | Contextual Adjacent Evidence | Keenan 2022: The Effects of Intermittent Fasting and Continuous Energy Restriction with Exercise on Cardiometabolic Biomarkers, Dietary Compliance, and Perceived Hunger and Mood: Secondary Outcomes of a Randomised, Controlled Trial | direction=unclear | directness=direct | A1 | outcome=Contextual Adjacent Evidence; direction=unclear | finding=representative non-significant statistic P = 0.47; not treated as positive or negative directional support unless source direction is coded | | Contextual Adjacent Evidence | Khalifa 2025: Intermittent fasting and liver disease: Insights from the Ramadan model | direction=null | directness=indirect | B2 | outcome=Contextual Adjacent Evidence; direction=null | finding=1 extracted claim(s); source-level direction is the coded finding | | Contextual Adjacent Evidence | Lange 2023: Intermittent fasting improves hepatic end points in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis | direction=negative | directness=review | B1 | outcome=Contextual Adjacent Evidence; direction=negative | finding=representative statistic P < 0.05; source-level statistic reported | | Contextual Adjacent Evidence | Liu 2026: Intermittent fasting for rheumatic diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis of conflicting evidence from observational studies and randomized controlled trials | direction=unclear | directness=review | B2 | outcome=Contextual Adjacent Evidence; direction=unclear | finding=representative statistic P < 0.05; source-level statistic reported | | Contextual Adjacent Evidence | Struven 2025: Impact of intermittent fasting on sleep physiology: A prospective observational study using smartwatch technology | direction=null | directness=indirect | B2 | outcome=Contextual Adjacent Evidence; direction=null | finding=representative non-significant statistic P = 0.322; not treated as positive or negative directional support unless source direction is coded | | Contextual Adjacent Evidence | Vignera 2026: Effects of Intermittent Fasting on Male and Female Reproductive Hormones, Fertility, and Sexual Function: A Comprehensive Review with Emphasis on the Existing Evidence Gap in Women | direction=unclear | directness=indirect | B2 | outcome=Contextual Adjacent Evidence; direction=unclear | finding=representative statistic P = 0.002; source-level statistic reported | | Contextual Adjacent Evidence | Washburn 2019: Pilot Study of Novel Intermittent Fasting Effects on Metabolomic and Trimethylamine N -oxide Changes During 24-hour Water-Only Fasting in the FEELGOOD Trial | direction=unclear | directness=indirect | B2 | outcome=Contextual Adjacent Evidence; direction=unclear | finding=representative statistic P = 0.019; source-level statistic reported | | Immune and Inflammation | Impact of Intermittent Fasting 2025: Impact of Intermittent Fasting on Gut Barrier Function and Inflammation | direction=unclear | directness=review | B1 | outcome=Immune and Inflammation; direction=unclear | finding=2 extracted claim(s); source-level direction is the coded finding | | Immune and Inflammation | Khalafi 2025a: The Effects of Intermittent Fasting on Inflammatory Markers in Adults: A Systematic Review and Pairwise and Network Meta-Analyses | direction=unclear | directness=review | B2 | outcome=Biomarker/Adjacent Immune and Inflammation; direction=unclear | finding=representative statistic P = 0.009; source-level statistic reported | | Immune and Inflammation | Neema 2025: Efficacy of Intermittent Fasting in the Management of Chronic Plaque Psoriasis: A Phase IIb Clinical Trial | direction=null | directness=indirect | B2 | outcome=Immune and Inflammation; direction=null | finding=39 extracted claim(s); source-level direction is the coded finding | | Immune and Inflammation | Pappe 2025: Intermittent Fasting Regimes Reduce Gingival Inflammation: A Three‐Arm Clinical Trial | direction=positive | directness=indirect | B2 | outcome=Immune and Inflammation; direction=positive | finding=18 extracted claim(s); source-level direction is the coded finding | | Immune and Inflammation | Ranjbar 2024: The effects of intermittent fasting diet on quality of life, clinical symptoms, inflammation, and oxidative stress in overweight and obese postmenopausal women with rheumatoid arthritis: study protocol of a randomized controlled trial | direction=null | directness=direct | A1 | outcome=Immune and Inflammation; direction=null | finding=10 extracted claim(s); source-level direction is the coded finding | | Mechanism | Samir 2025: Adjunctive effects of intermittent fasting and exercise with glibenclamide on diabetic nephropathy in rats: a potential role of the polyol pathway | direction=positive | directness=mechanistic | C1 | outcome=Mechanism (rodent); direction=positive | finding=representative statistic P < 0.0001; source-level statistic reported | | Mechanism | Zhao 2025: Hepatic lipidomics analysis reveals the anti-obesity effects of insoluble dietary fiber from okara combined with intermittent fasting treatment in high-fat diet-fed mice | direction=null | directness=mechanistic | C1 | outcome=Mechanism (mouse); direction=null | finding=representative statistic P < 0.05; source-level statistic reported | | Muscle Function | Kazeminasab 2025: Effects of Intermittent Fasting and Calorie Restriction on Exercise Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | direction=mixed | directness=review | B1 | outcome=Muscle Function; direction=mixed | finding=representative statistic P = 0.01; source-level statistic reported | | Muscle Function | Khoshkebijari 2026: Intermittent Fasting May Enhance Resistance Training Effects on the Body Composition of Obese Males, Without Affecting Muscular Strength and Anabolic Index | direction=unclear | directness=indirect | B2 | outcome=Muscle Function; direction=unclear | finding=representative statistic P < 0.05; source-level statistic reported | | Muscle Function | Valenzano 2025: Influence of Intermittent Fasting on Body Composition, Physical Performance, and the Orexinergic System in Postmenopausal Women: A Pilot Study | direction=unclear | directness=indirect | B2 | outcome=Muscle Function; direction=unclear | finding=representative statistic P < 0.05; source-level statistic reported | | Safety and Comorbidity | Jang 2025: Intermittent Fasting Protects Against the Progression from Acute Kidney Injury to Chronic Kidney Disease | direction=mixed | directness=indirect | B2 | outcome=Safety and Comorbidity; direction=mixed | finding=representative non-significant statistic P = 0.302; not treated as positive or negative directional support unless source direction is coded | ## Results **Outcome-class note:** Contextual Adjacent Evidence denotes background, boundary-condition, or adjacent-outcome sources. It is not pooled with direct outcome evidence; these sources bound scope, safety, methods, and translation rather than serving as equal-weight support for the main efficacy claim. | Evidence domain | Corpus slice | Strongest signal | Directness | Main limitation | |---|---|---|---|---| | Intermittent Fasting If Effects / Cardiometabolic | n=36; claims=3141 | significant source statistic in 26/36 sources; receipt-level direction coded unclear | 8 direct; 5 indirect; 23 review | limited corpus depth in this outcome class | | Intermittent Fasting If Effects / Contextual Adjacent Evidence | n=13; claims=424 | significant source statistic in 7/13 sources; receipt-level direction coded unclear | 4 direct; 7 indirect; 2 review | limited corpus depth in this outcome class | | Intermittent Fasting If Effects / Immune and Inflammation | n=5; claims=99 | significant source statistic in 1/5 sources; receipt-level direction coded unclear | 1 direct; 2 indirect; 2 review | limited corpus depth in this outcome class | | Intermittent Fasting If Effects / Muscle Function | n=3; claims=363 | significant source statistic in 3/3 sources; receipt-level direction coded unclear | 2 indirect; 1 review | limited corpus depth in this outcome class | | Intermittent Fasting If Effects / Mechanism | n=2; claims=141 | positive signal in 1/2 sources | 2 mechanistic | limited corpus depth in this outcome class | | Intermittent Fasting If Effects / Safety and Comorbidity | n=1; claims=32 | reported statistic in 1/1 sources; receipt-level direction coded unclear | 1 indirect | single-source slice; hypothesis-generating | **Source-context map:** Source-title contexts are separated for interpretation and are not pooled as one clinical effect. - Skeletal and muscle context: 4 sources; significant source statistic in 3/4 sources; receipt-level direction coded unclear. - Aging and geroscience context: 2 sources; significant source statistic in 1/2 sources; receipt-level direction coded unclear. - Dosing and pharmacokinetics context: 1 sources; negative signal in 1/1 sources. - Oncology and cancer context: 1 sources; significant source statistic in 1/1 sources; receipt-level direction coded unclear. ### Cardiometabolic Outcomes Cardiometabolic remains a separate Results slice for Intermittent Fasting If Effects (n=36; claims=3141; significant source statistic in 26/36 sources; receipt-level direction coded unclear; 8 direct; 5 indirect; 23 review; limited corpus depth in this outcome class) and is not pooled into adjacent endpoint classes. Source-level findings are: - Nofal 2025 (Effect of intermittent Islamic fasting in management of metabolic syndrome: a randomized control trial; representative statistic P < 0.001; source-level statistic reported; outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=negative; directness=direct; tier=A1). - Tavakoli 2025 (The effects of intermittent fasting on antioxidant and inflammatory markers and liver enzymes in postmenopausal; representative statistic P = 0.02; source-level statistic reported; outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=unclear; directness=direct; tier=A1). - Monda 2026 (Metabolic and Orexin-A Responses to Ketogenic Diet and Intermittent Fasting: A 12-Month Randomized Trial in Adults with; representative statistic p = 0.004; source-level statistic reported; outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=negative; directness=direct; tier=A1). - Noda 2026 (A Brief Web-Based and Mobile Intervention of Intermittent Fasting With Meal Support for Weight Loss Among Adults With; representative non-significant statistic P =.10; not treated as positive or negative directional support unless source direction is coded; outcome=Cardiometabolic; direction=unclear; directness=direct; tier=A1). Direction reconciliation: receipt-level null or unclear coding is conservative claim-level coding. Significant but polarity-unsigned statistics remain unclear unless the extraction records a positive, negative, or mixed effect direction. ### Contextual Adjacent Evidence Outcomes Contextual Adjacent Evidence remains a separate Results slice for Intermittent Fasting If Effects (n=13; claims=424; significant source statistic in 7/13 sources; receipt-level direction coded unclear; 4 direct; 7 indirect; 2 review; limited corpus depth in this outcome class) and is not pooled into adjacent endpoint classes. Source-level findings are: - Bunker 2025 (Intermittent fasting and a no-sugar diet for Long COVID symptoms: a randomized crossover trial; representative statistic p = 0.008; source-level statistic reported; outcome=Contextual Adjacent Evidence; direction=unclear; directness=direct; tier=A1). - Keenan 2022 (The Effects of Intermittent Fasting and Continuous Energy Restriction with Exercise on Cardiometabolic Biomarkers; representative non-significant statistic p = 0.47; not treated as positive or negative directional support unless source direction is coded; outcome=Contextual Adjacent Evidence; direction=unclear; directness=direct; tier=A1). - Lange 2023 (Intermittent fasting improves hepatic end points in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: A systematic review and; representative statistic p < 0.05; source-level statistic reported; outcome=Contextual Adjacent Evidence; direction=negative; directness=review; tier=B1). - Karras 2025 (Vitamin D supplementation and its impact on leptin and interleukin-6 in women following religious intermittent fasting; representative statistic p < 0.001; source-level statistic reported; outcome=Contextual Adjacent Evidence; direction=unclear; directness=indirect; tier=B2). ### Immune and Inflammation Outcomes Source-level findings are: - Khalafi 2025a (The Effects of Intermittent Fasting on Inflammatory Markers in Adults: A Systematic Review and Pairwise and Network; representative statistic p = 0.009; source-level statistic reported; outcome=Biomarker/Adjacent Immune and Inflammation; direction=unclear; directness=review; tier=B2). - Ranjbar 2024 (The effects of intermittent fasting diet on quality of life, clinical symptoms, inflammation, and oxidative stress in; 10 extracted claim(s); receipt-level direction is the coded finding; outcome=Immune and Inflammation; direction=null; directness=direct; tier=A1). - Neema 2025 (Efficacy of Intermittent Fasting in the Management of Chronic Plaque Psoriasis: A Phase IIb Clinical Trial; 39 extracted claim(s); receipt-level direction is the coded finding; outcome=Immune and Inflammation; direction=null; directness=indirect; tier=B2). - Pappe 2025 (Intermittent Fasting Regimes Reduce Gingival Inflammation: A Three‐Arm Clinical Trial; 18 extracted claim(s); receipt-level direction is the coded finding; outcome=Immune and Inflammation; direction=positive; directness=indirect; tier=B2). 1 included source were assigned to this outcome class. Signal summary: positive signal in 1/1 sources. Directness coding: indirect=1. Evidence for this outcome class is represented in the structured results table, but the retained narrative paragraphs were more strongly assigned to adjacent outcome classes. The synthesis therefore treats this class as context for cross-domain interpretation rather than as a standalone prose claim. ### Muscle Function Outcomes Muscle Function remains a separate Results slice for Intermittent Fasting If Effects (n=3; claims=363; significant source statistic in 3/3 sources; receipt-level direction coded unclear; 2 indirect; 1 review; limited corpus depth in this outcome class) and is not pooled into adjacent endpoint classes. Source-level findings are: - Kazeminasab 2025 (Effects of Intermittent Fasting and Calorie Restriction on Exercise Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis; representative statistic p = 0.01; source-level statistic reported; outcome=Muscle Function; direction=mixed; directness=review; tier=B1). - Khoshkebijari 2026 (Intermittent Fasting May Enhance Resistance Training Effects on the Body Composition of Obese Males, Without Affecting; representative statistic p < 0.05; source-level statistic reported; outcome=Muscle Function; direction=unclear; directness=indirect; tier=B2). - Valenzano 2025 (Influence of Intermittent Fasting on Body Composition, Physical Performance, and the Orexinergic System in; representative statistic p < 0.05; source-level statistic reported; outcome=Muscle Function; direction=unclear; directness=indirect; tier=B2). ### Mechanism Outcomes In animal/preclinical evidence, mechanism remains a separate Results slice for Intermittent Fasting If Effects (n=2; claims=141; positive signal in 1/2 sources; 2 mechanistic; limited corpus depth in this outcome class) and is not pooled into adjacent endpoint classes. Source-level findings are: - Samir 2025 (Adjunctive effects of intermittent fasting and exercise with glibenclamide on diabetic nephropathy in rats: a potential; representative statistic p < 0.0001; source-level statistic reported; outcome=Mechanism (rodent); direction=positive; directness=mechanistic; tier=C1). - Zhao 2025 (Hepatic lipidomics analysis reveals the anti-obesity effects of insoluble dietary fiber from okara combined with; representative statistic p < 0.05; source-level statistic reported; outcome=Mechanism (mouse); direction=null; directness=mechanistic; tier=C1). ### Safety and Comorbidity Outcomes Safety and Comorbidity remains a separate Results slice for Intermittent Fasting If Effects (n=1; claims=32; reported statistic in 1/1 sources; receipt-level direction coded unclear; 1 indirect; single-source slice; hypothesis-generating) and is not pooled into adjacent endpoint classes. Source-level findings are: - Jang 2025 (Intermittent Fasting Protects Against the Progression from Acute Kidney Injury to Chronic Kidney Disease; representative non-significant statistic p = 0.302; not treated as positive or negative directional support unless source direction is coded; outcome=Safety and Comorbidity; direction=mixed; directness=indirect; tier=B2). ## Limitations The principal limitation is evidence-role imbalance. The retained corpus contains 13 direct clinical sources, 44 adjacent, review, or context sources, and 3 mechanistic or model-system sources, which means causal interpretation depends on how much weight is assigned to each evidence tier. A second limitation is endpoint heterogeneity. Study-level signals span the mechanism, cardiometabolic, immune and inflammation outcome classes, the cardiometabolic, contextual adjacent evidence, immune and inflammation outcome classes, the cardiometabolic and contextual adjacent evidence outcome classes, and the cardiometabolic and muscle function outcome classes; these domains cannot be pooled narratively without losing clinically relevant differences in measurement, population, and study design. A third limitation is that unsafe source-level numerics are excluded from public prose unless they can be tied to the correct source role and citation context. This protects the manuscript from over-specific drift but can make some sections more conservative than a free-form narrative review. ## Conclusion For intermittent fasting (IF) effects, the final interpretation is deliberately tiered: the retained clinical and mechanistic evidence profile defines a bounded evidence rationale, but the corpus does not support treating mechanistic target engagement, intermediate biomarkers, and patient-relevant outcomes as interchangeable evidence. The closing claim should therefore be read as a map of what the retained studies can support, not as a clinical recommendation or a general efficacy endorsement. Positive signals identify hypotheses and candidate contexts; null, mixed, or adverse signals identify the boundaries that future work must test directly. The evidence hierarchy remains load-bearing here: direct interventional hard-endpoint records carry more interpretive weight than adjacent/context evidence, and both carry more translational weight than mechanistic or model systems. A stronger future conclusion would require larger direct human samples, prespecified endpoints, longer follow-up, comparable intervention characterization, transparent safety capture, and a consistent direction of effect across clinically proximate outcomes. Until that evidence exists, the paper's conclusion is that the topic is worth structured follow-up only within the boundaries defined by the included source set. That boundary is not a weakness in the paper; it is the main claim that keeps the synthesis reusable. Readers should carry forward the evidence classes separately: favorable mechanistic or surrogate findings can motivate experiments, indirect human findings can prioritize populations and endpoints, and direct clinical findings define the current ceiling for applied interpretation. The current corpus may support intermittent fasting (IF) effects as a general health or lifestyle intervention where otherwise indicated, but does not justify marketing it as a standalone longevity intervention with proven hard clinical-outcome effects. Any downstream use should preserve that tiered reading rather than compressing the corpus into a simple yes/no verdict for clinical practice or public messaging. ## What This Synthesis Adds This synthesis maps 60 included sources on Intermittent Fasting (IF) effects across 7 outcome classes and a high-density pairwise disagreement map. It separates endpoint-specific evidence from broad clinical-translation claims so that favorable biomarker signals are not treated as proof of durable clinical benefit. Across 60 curated reference papers, the evidence base for IF shows a context-dependent profile. Positive signals appear in: mechanism, cardiometabolic. Negative signals appear in: cardiometabolic, contextual other. Null findings dominate: cardiometabolic, contextual other. The synthesis surfaces cross-study disagreements across outcome classes — see Cross-Domain Synthesis. The broad aging-related case for IF as currently constituted is incomplete: mechanistic plausibility coexists with mixed or sparse human-RCT evidence, and the boundary conditions remain to be established. The strongest unresolved contrast is the disagreement between Koh 2025 and Qudah 2026 on cardiometabolic (severity 5/5), which defines the boundary condition future studies must test rather than smooth over. Prior reviews in the corpus (Kazeminasab 2025, Couto-Alfonso 2026, Khalafi 2024a, Kibret 2025, Lu 2025) emphasize convergent signals on Intermittent Fasting (IF) effects. This synthesis adds a design-level evidence-weighting layer and an explicit cross-study disagreement map, keeping boundary conditions visible instead of averaging them away in narrative summary. ### Boundary-Condition Matrix | Evidence domain | Direct sources | Indirect / mechanism sources | Direction profile | Interpretation boundary | |---|---:|---:|---|---| | muscle function | 0 | 3 | mixed, unclear | direct interventional hard-endpoint gap | | mechanism | 0 | 2 | null, positive | conflict-resolution gap | | cardiometabolic | 8 | 28 | mixed, negative, null, positive, unclear | conflict-resolution gap | | immune and inflammation | 1 | 3 | null, unclear | replication gap | | immune and inflammation | 0 | 1 | positive | direct interventional hard-endpoint gap | | safety and comorbidity | 0 | 1 | unclear | direct interventional hard-endpoint gap | | contextual adjacent evidence | 4 | 9 | negative, null, unclear | conflict-resolution gap | ### Evidence-Gap Priority | Priority | Gap | Rationale | |---|---|---| | P1 | muscle function: direct interventional hard-endpoint gap | 0 direct and 3 indirect sources; direction profile: mixed, unclear | | P2 | mechanism: conflict-resolution gap | 0 direct and 2 indirect sources; direction profile: null, positive | | P3 | cardiometabolic: conflict-resolution gap | 8 direct and 28 indirect sources; direction profile: mixed, negative, null, positive, unclear | | P4 | immune and inflammation: replication gap | 1 direct and 3 indirect sources; direction profile: null, unclear | | P5 | immune and inflammation: direct interventional hard-endpoint gap | 0 direct and 1 indirect source; direction profile: positive | ### Next-Study Design Recommendation The next high-yield study for Intermittent Fasting (IF) effects should target the **muscle function** evidence gap, pre-register the primary endpoint, separate clinical from mechanistic endpoints, preserve safety and adherence capture, and include an analysis plan that can falsify the current boundary-condition claim rather than only confirming a favorable direction. Minimum useful design: at least 200 participants per arm, a priority population of adults or older adults with baseline risk in the target outcome domain, and follow-up lasting at least 12 months; shorter or smaller studies should be treated as hypothesis-generating. ## Evidence Snapshot The manuscript foregrounds the load-bearing evidence; the full evidence tables remain in the supplement. ### Load-Bearing Included Studies - Nofal 2025; tier=A1; directness=direct; endpoint=cardiometabolic; direction=negative; representative statistic=P < 0.001. - Tavakoli 2025; tier=A1; directness=direct; endpoint=cardiometabolic; direction=unclear; representative statistic=P = 0.004. - Bunker 2025; tier=A1; directness=direct; endpoint=contextual adjacent evidence; direction=unclear; representative statistic=P < 0.0001. - Monda 2026; tier=A1; directness=direct; endpoint=cardiometabolic; direction=negative; representative statistic=P < 0.001. - Noda 2026; tier=A1; directness=direct; endpoint=cardiometabolic; direction=unclear; representative statistic=P < 0.001. - Barve 2025; tier=A1; directness=direct; endpoint=cardiometabolic; direction=unclear; representative statistic=P < 0.0001. - Fattah 2026; tier=A1; directness=direct; endpoint=cardiometabolic; direction=unclear; representative statistic=P < 0.001. - Keenan 2022; tier=A1; directness=direct; endpoint=contextual adjacent evidence; direction=unclear; representative statistic=P = 0.001. - Sen 2026; tier=A1; directness=direct; endpoint=cardiometabolic; direction=unclear; representative statistic=P < 0.001. - Bamberg 2025; tier=A1; directness=direct; endpoint=contextual adjacent evidence; direction=null. ### Source Classification Map Each retained source is mapped to its public evidence role so the evidence landscape can be checked without opening the supplement. - Nofal 2025: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=direct; tier=A1; direction=negative; claims=259. - Tavakoli 2025: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=direct; tier=A1; direction=unclear; claims=144. - Bunker 2025: outcome=contextual adjacent evidence; directness=direct; tier=A1; direction=unclear; claims=101. - Monda 2026: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=direct; tier=A1; direction=negative; claims=96. - Noda 2026: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=direct; tier=A1; direction=unclear; claims=85. - Barve 2025: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=direct; tier=A1; direction=unclear; claims=73. - Fattah 2026: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=direct; tier=A1; direction=unclear; claims=69. - Keenan 2022: outcome=contextual adjacent evidence; directness=direct; tier=A1; direction=unclear; claims=46. - Sen 2026: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=direct; tier=A1; direction=unclear; claims=31. - Bamberg 2025: outcome=contextual adjacent evidence; directness=direct; tier=A1; direction=null; claims=28. - Ranjbar 2024: outcome=immune; directness=direct; tier=A1; direction=null; claims=10. - Steger 2025: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=direct; tier=A1; direction=null; claims=8. - Couto 2025: outcome=contextual adjacent evidence; directness=direct; tier=A1; direction=unclear; claims=2. - Kazeminasab 2025: outcome=muscle function; directness=review; tier=B1; direction=mixed; claims=285. - Couto-Alfonso 2026: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=review; tier=B1; direction=mixed; claims=263. - Khalafi 2024a: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=review; tier=B1; direction=mixed; claims=214. - Kibret 2025: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=review; tier=B1; direction=unclear; claims=202. - Lu 2025: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=review; tier=B1; direction=mixed; claims=163. - Li 2026: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=review; tier=B1; direction=mixed; claims=110. - Lange 2023: outcome=contextual adjacent evidence; directness=review; tier=B1; direction=negative; claims=79. - Song 2025: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=review; tier=B1; direction=mixed; claims=72. - Yang 2021: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=review; tier=B1; direction=null; claims=70. - Ranneh 2025: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=review; tier=B1; direction=mixed; claims=69. - He 2026: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=review; tier=B1; direction=negative; claims=66. - Koh 2025: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=review; tier=B1; direction=negative; claims=46. - Qudah 2026: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=review; tier=B1; direction=positive; claims=36. - Khalafi 2024b: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=review; tier=B1; direction=unclear; claims=16. - Kazeminasab 2024: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=review; tier=B1; direction=unclear; claims=14. - Khalafi 2025b: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=review; tier=B1; direction=unclear; claims=8. - Impact of Intermittent Fasting 2025: outcome=immune; directness=review; tier=B1; direction=unclear; claims=2. - Abdollahpour 2025: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=indirect; tier=B2; direction=unclear; claims=397. - Dai 2025: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=review; tier=B2; direction=unclear; claims=122. - Xing 2026: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=review; tier=B2; direction=unclear; claims=89. - Semnani-Azad 2025: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=review; tier=B2; direction=unclear; claims=82. - Khoshkebijari 2026: outcome=muscle function; directness=indirect; tier=B2; direction=unclear; claims=68. - Jiao 2026: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=review; tier=B2; direction=unclear; claims=60. - Guo 2025: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=review; tier=B2; direction=unclear; claims=58. - Breit 2025: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=indirect; tier=B2; direction=unclear; claims=55. - Liu 2025: outcome=cardiometabolic; directness=review; tier=B2; direction=unclear; claims=44. - Neema 2025: outcome=immune; directness=indirect; tier=B2; direction=null; claims=39. ### Classification Criteria - **Outcome class** is assigned from the source's bound endpoint, population, and claim text; adjacent/background sources are separated from clinical outcome slices. - **Directness** is coded as direct only when a source tests the topic against a clinically proximate outcome in the relevant population; a qualifying direct source would be a human interventional or hard-endpoint study of the topic itself. Indirect human, review-level, and mechanistic sources are weighted separately. - **Directional signal** is counted within the assigned outcome class only. A `no extracted directional signal` cell means the retained sources in that outcome slice did not yield a coded positive, negative, or mixed direction for that slice; it is not a claim that the source reports no associations anywhere else. - **Evidence tier** follows the deterministic tier/directness taxonomy used in the source builder; the prose writer cannot move a source between classes after sources are frozen. ### Load-Bearing Tensions - Additional corpus sources included animal/preclinical evidence; additional corpus sources included animal/preclinical evidence; additional corpus sources included animal/preclinical evidence; additional corpus sources included animal/preclinical evidence; additional corpus sources included animal/preclinical evidence; additional corpus sources included animal/preclinical evidence; additional corpus sources included animal/preclinical evidence; additional corpus sources included animal/preclinical evidence; additional corpus sources included animal/preclinical evidence; additional corpus sources included animal/preclinical evidence; severity 5 disagreement: Koh 2025 vs Qudah 2026; Koh 2025 reports negative effect on cardiometabolic; Qudah 2026 reports positive on the same outcome — direct conflict - Severity 5 disagreement: Qudah 2026 vs He 2026; Qudah 2026 reports positive effect on cardiometabolic; He 2026 reports negative on the same outcome — direct conflict - Severity 4 null vs negative: Lange 2023 vs Beveridge 2025; Lange 2023 (negative on contextual other) vs Beveridge 2025 (null on contextual other) — partial conflict - Severity 4 null vs negative: Lange 2023 vs Struven 2025; Lange 2023 (negative on contextual other) vs Struven 2025 (null on contextual other) — partial conflict - Severity 4 null vs negative: Lange 2023 vs Khalifa 2025; Lange 2023 (negative on contextual other) vs Khalifa 2025 (null on contextual other) — partial conflict - Severity 4 null vs negative: Zhang 2025 vs Koh 2025; Koh 2025 (negative on cardiometabolic) vs Zhang 2025 (null on cardiometabolic) — partial conflict - Severity 4 null vs negative: Zhang 2025 vs He 2026; He 2026 (negative on cardiometabolic) vs Zhang 2025 (null on cardiometabolic) — partial conflict - Severity 4 null vs negative: Koh 2025 vs Wang 2025; Koh 2025 (negative on cardiometabolic) vs Wang 2025 (null on cardiometabolic) — partial conflict ## References - **Abdollahpour 2025.** _Comparative effects of intermittent fasting and calorie restriction on cardiovascular health in adults with overweight or obesity._ Scientific Reports, 2025. 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DOI: 10.1038/s41430-025-01693-z PMID: 41501473. - **Khoshkebijari 2026.** _Intermittent Fasting May Enhance Resistance Training Effects on the Body Composition of Obese Males, Without Affecting Muscular Strength and Anabolic Index._ Journal of Obesity, 2026. DOI: 10.1155/jobe/6409069 PMID: 41726214. - **He 2026.** _The effects of intermittent fasting on BMI, fasting blood glucose, and blood pressure in women with overweight or obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis with dose–response relationships._ Frontiers in Nutrition, 2026. DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2026.1818813 PMID: 42221756. - **Jiao 2026.** _Optimal dosage of exercise combined with intermittent fasting for body composition and cardiometabolic health in adults: a systematic review and multilevel meta-analysis._ Frontiers in Nutrition, 2026. DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2026.1772836 PMID: 41883415. - **Guo 2025.** _Comprehensive impact of Intermittent Hypoxia Training and Intermittent Fasting on metabolic and cognitive health in adults with obesity: an umbrella systematic review and meta-analysis._ Frontiers in Nutrition, 2025. DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2025.1664600 PMID: 41170361. - **Breit 2025.** _Effects of 4:3 Intermittent Fasting on Eating Behaviors and Appetite Hormones: A Secondary Analysis of a 12-Month Behavioral Weight Loss Intervention._ Nutrients, 2025. DOI: 10.3390/nu17142385 PMID: 40733010. - **Koh 2025.** _The Effectiveness of Time-Restricted Eating as an Intermittent Fasting Approach on Shift Workers’ Glucose Metabolism: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis._ Nutrients, 2025. DOI: 10.3390/nu17101689 PMID: 40431429. - **Keenan 2022.** _The Effects of Intermittent Fasting and Continuous Energy Restriction with Exercise on Cardiometabolic Biomarkers, Dietary Compliance, and Perceived Hunger and Mood: Secondary Outcomes of a Randomised, Controlled Trial._ Nutrients, 2022. DOI: 10.3390/nu14153071 PMID: 35893925. - **Liu 2025.** _The effects of intermittent fasting on anthropometric indices, glycemic profile, chemotherapy-related toxicity, and subjective perception in gynecological and breast cancer patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis._ BMC Cancer, 2025. DOI: 10.1186/s12885-025-13806-9 PMID: 40055608. - **Neema 2025.** _Efficacy of Intermittent Fasting in the Management of Chronic Plaque Psoriasis: A Phase IIb Clinical Trial._ Indian Dermatology Online Journal, 2025. 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